“The world rests in the night. Trees, mountains, fields, and faces are released from the prison of shape and the burden of exposure. Each thing creeps back into its own nature within the shelter of the dark. Darkness is the ancient womb. Nighttime is womb‑time. Our souls come out to play.”
John O’Donohue
Cover art by Daniel Maclise
October 31st – November 1st
The word Samhain in Gaeilge or Samhuinn and Samhainn in Scots Gaelic is pronounced sow-wen. Samhain means ‘November’ and possibly stems from old Irish meaning ‘summer’s end’. This night is also called Oíche Shamhna, Night of Samhain. The same date in Welsh is called Nos Galan-gaeaf, Night of the Winter Calends.
Samhain marks the end of the lighter half of the year, and the descent into darkness. It’s unclear whether it was considered a beginning or an ending of sorts in the past, but this is speculation based on only a few references, namely the Gaulish Coligny calendar. Samhain, along with its opposite light festival Bealtaine, were possibly considered to be arguably the most magical or important of the celebrations as they signified possibly the makeshift beginning of each, the dark (moon) and light (sun) halves of the year or rather the active ‘work’ portion of the year and the more relaxed ‘rest’ful half.
“For two divisions were formerly on the year, viz., summer from Beltaine (the first of May), and winter from Samuin to Beltaine.” – Tochmarc Emire, Wooing of Emer, 8th – 9th century
Although the date has been referenced for what it is for many hundred years starting at sundown on October 31st, there are some folk references in the Irish Dúchas Folk Library that say Samhain was additionally celebrated the three days before as well as the three days after November 1st.1 Of course, there is the astronomical date to contend with as well that changes slightly year to year. Regardless, around this time period, vegetation starts dying, livestock are often slaughtered, salted or eaten (mainly cows and pigs at feasts), food items are stocked away and death in some respects, is genuinely in the air. The powers of decay and blight are ascending, yet of course, the promise of future triumphs over these elements of nature are not to be forgotten.
It was a time when the wall between this world and the Otherworld was thought to be at its very thinnest. It was so thin in fact that the dead could return to the land of the living and likewise, some of the living, especially poets and seers were able to enter the otherworld more easily through journeying, possibly through the mounds or other sacred spaces within the land. This is referenced often in Irish mythical tales where someone fell asleep near a sacred sight and is visited by an otherworldly figure, usually a beautiful divine maiden.
Consequently, prophecy and fortune telling were thought to be capable of being practiced in various forms more accurately and so, were done more frequently. It was the most auspicious time… the ‘best’ time to do these practices. How this translated into the present by the 1920’s looked like practices in Ireland such as baking a cake and hiding a ring inside. Whoever picked the piece that contained the ring was destined to be married the soonest. Another was to… “Put three saucers on the table, into which they put clay, water and a ring. Each person present is blindfolded and led to the saucers. If he puts his hand in the one with the water, he is expected to cross the sea the soonest of the crowd; and if he puts his hand in the clay, is expected to die the soonest. If he puts his hand in the ring saucer, he is supposed to get married before the rest of the crowd present.”2 These are of course only two of many wonderful examples of fortune or prophecy telling through games in Ireland as well as the rest of the isles.
In the Irish prose tale of Airne Fíngein, Fíngen’s Vigil, (9th and 10th century) Fíngein mac Luchta, the leader of Munster was visited by a Druidess or prophetess named Rothniam every Samhain who would relate all the future occurrences in the kingdom for the next twelve months. In another reference to divination on Samhain, a Druid by the name of Dáithí went to the top of The Hill of the Druid, now Mullaroe in Sligo, and remained there all night from sundown until sunrise. When he woke and returned, he informed the king that the clouds had foretold he would conquer land in Alba, Britain and Gaul.3 These are just two of many examples of divination occurring on or near Samhain by Druids or Druidesses.
“In Ireland, there was an old common saying “The blessing of Bel, and the blessing of Samhain, be with you,” that is, of the sun and of the moon.” – Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms and Superstitions of Ireland, 1887
The Aos Sí or Daoine Sí, ‘people of the mounds’ or ‘fairy people’ were thought to be especially more active during this time of the year, possibly to offer their counsel and visit the living as they are mentioned doing in Irish tales. Children did not go out at night for fear of creatures like the púca, quoted as a dark fairy man.4 Fairies were on a spectrum. They were again, not “wholly good or wholly bad.” Therefore, they garnered immense respect and care. Additionally, witches as they were known, for better or worse were also thought to have been more active.
It’s easy to understand why this time of year was and is considered so unique as Autumn has an intangible feeling of magic, nostalgia and a haunting sense of deeper primal emotions. From a purely analytical and scientific perspective, death is a bridge to the otherworld and because so much in nature is dying right now, that could somehow connect us all on a collectively deeper unconscious level, at least in parts of the world where a lot of these massive die offs occur. I say this as someone who cyclically spends time in my garden watching all of the bees slowly fall asleep and die on the dwindling flowers feeling an indescribable ache in my heart. It never gets easier. Autumn is also typically the wettest time of year in Ireland and with water being a conduit of otherworldly energies, therein lies another possible explanation of the ease at which both sacred messengers and messages were able to be received.
Samhain from an Irish context is the only celebration that doesn’t have more obvious evidence of being associated with one specific god or goddess above all others; however, many scholars speculate it could have been The Morrígan whose name means ‘great queen’. She is well known in the folkloric community as a powerful figure associated with, not coincidentally, omens, prophecy, sovereignty and adversity which sometimes included an association with death that is also a central theme at this time. This relation is not a symbol of death itself but rather, the transformation that occurs from great challenges and upheaval in our lives that is often painful but necessary or simply a natural aspect of life we are forced to reckon and cope with, such as death.
More poignant to her role is that she is there at the hour we are most vulnerable (often in battle or troubling times, ie winter) when we need to live in her example, in our power. Or, she is testing us and pushing us to be our best and higher self. She is also associated with black birds, ravens and crows, especially hooded crows. These are natural scavengers that were a common presence during or after battles. This association is deeply symbolic as those eaten by birds in ‘sky burials,’ were often thought to ascend more quickly to the heavens or Otherworld. There is no direct evidence quoting sky burials in Irish mythology however, there was a mythic acceptance of it within multiple references to the dead being left to the carrion after a battle rather than buried. Furthermore, bones found in cairns were often scattered in such a way suggesting some bodies were not buried. From this lens, corvids take on a liminal, sacred and beautiful role of delivering us home, rather than singularly being a harbinger of doom and death they have sometimes been associated with. Corvids are incredibly intelligent and observant as well. In Ireland, they are particularly, almost uniquely curious of and interactive with humans. There is clearly something deeper going on within their presence and their symbology and it’s certainly no accident that Herself is associated with them.
She is there when we often need to save ourselves or others. Furthermore, ‘deaths’ are not always literal… but rather, the shedding of our old self which we have eclipsed with a stronger version that is a more sure, powerful or ‘whole’ version of ourselves. All of these concepts intimately link her with both communal and personal sovereignty. She is also of course associated with Uaimh na gCat, Oweyngat, ‘Cave of the Cats’ in Ráth Cruachan in County Roscommon. It was also called Úaim Crúachain ‘the Cave of Crúachain’ and Síd Crúachan ‘The Otherworldly Place of Crúachan’. This is where it was said that horrible monsters came out to prowl and hunt those out late at night on Samhain eve.
Another association of her appears from the Cath Maige Tuired, The Battle of Magh Tuireadh where The Morrígan and the Dagda have ritual sex during the week before Samhain (not the day itself) to discuss the continuing prosperity, safety and well being of their tribe, the Tuatha Dé Danann. Again, she is there at the tribe’s hour of need to provide her support. However, it’s important to note this was a yearly and regular meeting and they were considered married or a couple at minimum. This coupling does remind us again of the marriage between the land goddess and the sun god (the king), of which their fruits (child) would be sown not coincidentally nine months later at the harvest festival of Lughnasadh. This symbolism was carried out in ritual form by chieftains and kings of Ireland as well when they symbolically married the land. This does not make Herself a sex goddess in any significant capacity. Many other characters in Irish mythology have sex or even group sex (more sex than The Morrígan) and they are not considered a sex god or goddess. The act is again, symbolic.
Samhain may have also been associated with the great Cailleach, the winter hag goddess, possibly representative of Brigid in her opposite shadow form or manifestation, as per Scottish folklore. Possibly, not coincidentally, The Morrígan and the Cailleach both fulfilled the folk motif of sovereignty goddess, being representative of the land itself and challenging the hero of the story to be their best selves. They often appeared to them in a shapeshifted version of themselves. Only when the men proved themselves to be of sound character through the challenges set before them were they declared fit to be a ruler or bestowed protection in one form or another.
One of the most poignant examples involving the Morrígan occurs in the Táin Bó Cúailnge, where Cú Chulainn encounters a mysterious woman on the roadside. She appears to him as a beautiful young woman of noble bearing, dressed in red, often described with long dark hair and bright eyes. She introduces herself as the daughter of a king, offering him her love and aid in battle. Proud and focused on his duty, Cú Chulainn rejects her advances, saying he has no time for love or distraction in the midst of war and she reveals her identity. This moment establishes the Morrígan as both the test and the guide for his fate. Cú Chulainn’s rejection of her symbolizes his defiance of destiny, and seals his fate, as to reject the goddess of battle and sovereignty is to reject divine protection.
In the Lebor Gabála Érenn, it was said that each year on the plain of Mag Cetne on Samhain, the Nemedians (inhabitants of Ireland before the Tuatha Dé Danann arrived) paid tribute to the Fomorians (still lead by Balor), the gods of darkness, by giving them “2/3 of their people and produce, including progeny, corn, wheat and milk.”5 There is a later reference in Christian texts of the old pagans sacrificing to Crom Cruach (possibly, still the role of Balor) in this nearly identical fashion which is one of the only references to human sacrifice supposedly having taken place in Ireland. From my own perspective, this story sometimes taken as a genuine historic reference is merely a retelling of the tales of the Nemedians or Tuatha Dé and their shared enemy, the Fomorians and is not indicative in any way that actual people were sacrificed. With that said, criminals were possibly put down as was very common across the world and the manner in which that was done may have lended to some misinterpretation or manipulation. In reality, what was most likely ‘sacrificed’ during these great festivals but especially on Samhain, would have been the firstlings of all flocks and herds.6 To continue with the idea of Crom Cruach being a possible cognate of Balor… St. Patrick fulfilled the role of Lugh Lamhfada in this supplanted Christian telling of the story of offerings and sacrifices being made near or on Samhain.
“Samhainn… was one of the seasons when innumerable mystic rites are practiced.” – Alexander Carmichael, Carmina Gadelica II, 1928
Of course, there may have been some overlap in characters and meaning, festival to festival when they were nearest in proximity (light versus dark half of the year) on the calendar as well as having similar traits and symbols of the season such as harvest themes or even characters that played a role during both seasonal events.
I say this because Crom Cruach was also mentioned in some historical texts as being honored at Lughnasa in addition to Samhain. Furthermore, Lugh is of course central to Lughnasa but also arrived at the high court of Tara on Samhain which is incredibly meaningful. He pronounced his gifts to King Nuada and implored on the good he could do to help them. He was there at their hour of most need (as a figure of light), when the powers of blight and darkness (Fomorians) were descending on the Tuatha Dé Danann to collect payment in one form or another. He reshaped the entire tribe and would of course go on to defeat the Fomorians and their leader, his grandfather Balor which is again, symbolic and meaningful. Lugh would henceforth go on to ascend as king and ultimately triumph over evil. Similarly, Imbolc and Bealtaine share some central themes as well such as fertility and vivacity.
What fascinates many scholars about the stories in Irish mythology is that there is a possible genuine connection to real groups of settlers that arrived in Ireland and real battles that may have taken place where one group replaced another. We’ll never know what’s true or not, what’s symbolic or not, real events or both. Were these stories literal or figurative (based on the astronomical year and events) or both? The stories of Balor and Crom Cruach, if not a direct reflection of actual events, could be at their core, stories about nature and the death that naturally occurs around us during the more harsh autumn and winter seasons. Life is possibly, seemingly ‘sacrificed’ to be reabsorbed by the earthen womb, becoming reborn and reanimated again in spring. It was understood very deeply through many intersecting human experiences that typically, only what you put into something, you received… and that a sacrifice of something energetically was usually required to get any results. This is true for many basic tasks to merely survive such as farming and hunting. Energy is actually our singular and highest currency.
There are quite a few references to Samhain in old Irish literature. In the Aisling Óenguso, The Dream of Aengus Óg, Aengus was united with his one true love on Samhain. With the help from his parents, the Dagda and Bóinn, he rescued a beautiful maiden named Caer Ibormeith, they shape shift into two swans and fly away together singing beautiful songs that could lull anyone to sleep that heard them. It was believed that only on Samhain, people who were enchanted would regain their original true form for the day, which is how Aengus was able to recognize her from a dream he’d had. It was also suggested in the Lebor Gabála Érenn, The Book of Invasions that the airbe drūad, or ‘druid’s fence’, an invisible screen which protected certain privileged persons against wounding in battle would not work on Samhain and may have lend to further reasoning not to leave one’s house.7 Other mentions occur in the Cath Magh Tuireadh, Battle of Moytura as already mentioned, Macgnímartha Finn, The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn, as well as Echtra Nerai, The Adventure of Nera.
Beautiful reflections on Samhain and further mythic and folkloric connections by Dáithí Ó hÓgáin from his wondrous and highly recommended book The Sacred Isle : Belief and Religion in Pre-Christian Ireland…
“The elements which provide the setting for this fictional adventure are well attested in other accounts in Irish literature. The hero Cú Chulainn, for instance is said in a story from the 8th century to have fallen in love with a woman called Fand, who is married in the otherworld to the mythical Manannan. At the feast of Samhain, Cú Chulainn fails to shoot down two strange birds, after which he is overcome by fatigue and falls asleep by a rock. In a vision two strange women, Fand and Lí Ban, come to him and strike him, leaving him in a delirious sickness for a year. At the feast of Samhain again, a strange man comes to him with a message in verse that he is required in a place called Magh Cruaich. Cú Chulainn gets up and goes to the rock where he had fallen asleep, and there Lí Ban comes to him and tells him that he will be cured on condition that he fight a battle on behalf of her husband, the king of that land, after which he shall have the love of Fand. She further explains that the real name of her clime is Magh Meall.
After some prevarication, Cú Chulainn consents, and goes to Magh Meall – which is reached by rowing across a lake to an island – and by his tremendous fighting secures victory in the battle. He then dallies with Fand for a month. There is a palace there, beautifully adorned with gold, as well as trees bearing wonderful fruit, a never-ending supply of mead, the accompaniment of sweet music and fine horses. On his return home, however, Cú Chulainn is upbraided by his wife Eimhear, and cannot decide what to do. In the end, Fand returns to her husband, and Cú Chulainn is recovered – through the assistance of druids – by his wife.
We note here that – as in several stories in the old literature – the festival of Samhain is the time at which the two worlds meet. Samhain, as the beginning of winter, was, and remains still in folklore, the principal date with which Celtic culture in Ireland associated the otherworld. This gives a clue as to the ultimate origin of such lore, namely that the idea of mortals engaging in supernatural adventures grew out of the performance of special rituals and ceremonies. Many other cultures also have this idea of festivals as sacred time, when the mythical and ancestral beings are recalled.”
The Druids possibly lit their sacred signal fires on the Hill of Ward in County Meath for Samhain while they were lit for Bealtaine at Uisneach. The druid Mog Ruith and his daughter Tlachtga, famously became associated with the Hill of Ward, possibly through these and other similar fire rituals as it was said that “No fires were permitted to be lighted in Ireland but those obtained from the Druids at May and November, who delivered their sacred fire to the people with great incantations.”8 It’s possible that in a descending fashion, other central fires were lit in each locale. As was tradition, each house may have cleaned their fireplace and rekindled a new one sourcing from their local ‘need fire‘ during this night but symbolically, it was rekindled from the central fire started by a head druid. I should add in regards to this father and daughter pair that it’s thought by some scholars they were made diminutive from a solar deity and goddess. Tlachtga was said to be a druidess and was raped by three sons after which she went on to produce three sons and died in the birthing process. She was buried at the Hill of Ward, previously called the Hill of Tlachtga.9 The Mound of Hostages near the Hill of Tara is fascinatingly thought to be aligned with the Samhain sunrise. There is evidence to suggest that this was a place of Samhain celebrations as well…
“With the men of Ireland too it was general that out of all airts they should resort to Tara in order to the holding of Tara’s Feast at samhaintide. For these were the two principal gatherings that they had: Tara’s Feast at every samhain (that being the heathens’ Easter); and at each lughnasa, or’ Lammas-tide,’ the Convention of Taillte.” – Aided Áeda Sláine, The Death / Birth of Áed Sláine, 7th century
Halloween is another celebration related to Samhain and a tradition that masses of Irish and Scottish emigrants brought with them to America, Canada and Australia. It is estimated that somewhere between 8 – 10 million Irish emigrated, approximately half of which came to America between 1800 and 1950. The earliest known written instance is 1565, in Scotland, appearing as “All Hallows Even” So, Hallowe’en literally means “the evening of All Hallows.” This recognition may have already had a relation with All Saint’s Day on November 1st. The observance of ‘Halloween’ essentially collectively became a cultural amalgamation of the various folkloric practices in addition to new Christian practices surrounding the same date. Halloween as it became known, was treasured enough that it would not be left behind and it wasn’t long before it gained traction as a mainstream family tradition in America and other places.
Although it has become completely bastardized and mocked through commercialization, the essence of Samhain is there in the holiday’s roots that are irrevocably linked. On Samhain night it was bad luck to go out of your home but if you did have to go, you wore a disguise to blend in with the evil spirits roaming about, which could have been as simple as a shirt over your head. In Ireland and Scotland, this was sometimes called ‘guising’ and dressing in costumes reminiscent of biddy boys, using straw, sheet coverings or their own creations. This evolved into dressing in full costume and going house to house to ask for an “offering” of candy which was the original role of guisers and mummers and included an act of pretending to be a ghost, spirit or witch that needed appeasing, lest you be tricked.
In Wales, the king of fairies, Gwyn ap Nudd with his hounds was leader of the wild hunt and it was thought that he rode out on Samhain or Halloween night bringing bad luck, havoc and possibly death to those who saw him, capturing and taking them down to the Underworld. This tale along with the Irish Dullahan were likely the inspiration for famous tales like the headless horseman written later by Washington Irving. In Wales and certain parts of England, spectral figures like the Yr Hwch Ddu Gwta, Tailless Black Sow or the Black Shuck among many others were thought to be roaming about. In Scotland, there was also a demon or goblin that was known to steal babies or commit atrocities on Samhainn night called the Samhanach, a derivative from the holiday word itself. Quite a few herbal plants, trees or food items may have been associated with Samhain such as the apple, aspen, corn, ivy, mugwort, mullein, hazel, wild garlic, elder, juniper, blackberry, rowan, rue, sage, vervain and oak to name just a few.
All across the isles, children visited homes door to door to pray for the dead. Families left offerings for the dead or wandering spirits and bonfires were common. Certain divination games as already mentioned were common as well as visits to graveyards, honoring ancestors and lighting candles. Bobbing for apples or creating charms for protection or luck was also a common folkloric tradition. Certain meals may have been prepared such as Colcannon and some of which were again, left out for deceased relatives or the fairies themselves.10
In Ireland and Scotland, milk was also a common item put out and particularly in Scotland, for the cat-fiadhaich, Kellas cat or Cat Sith.11 These were black cats thought to be witches that had the ability to turn into a cat nine times. Here, it was tradition again to leave an offering of milk in hopes the passing spirits would bless your home verses curse it if there were none. This may have also been where the folklore of a cat having nine lives as well as black cats being the familiars of witches originated from.12 Without a doubt, the most recognizable symbols of Halloween are trick or treating, apples, turnips and Jack O’Lanterns. When Irish and Scottish emigrants came to America, they transitioned to pumpkin carving simply because they were readily available, bigger and easier to carve.
This was a time when nature was dying literally and so, those that had already passed away were honored as well. In Ireland, a traditional Irish feast called Suanach Bheile, silent supper or Béile Ciúin Shamhna, Silent Supper of Samhain would be prepared and the family would leave (or do leave) a chair or multiple chairs out for their deceased loved ones who were thought to be visiting. Families may have again, frequented their ancestors’ grave sites and left offerings at the grave, their home or both. It was sometimes tradition to leave doors open or unlocked. The deeds of loved ones or special stories may have been retold. This sacred tradition is thought to have possibly inspired the Christianized ‘All Saint’s Day’ which also commemorates important deceased figures but it’s unclear which came first and which one inspired what. The essence of Samhain is one of honoring ancestors, retreating into the darker spaces of our being, analyzing our fears, preparing for them, entertaining prophecies, reflecting and focusing on our courage and perseverance to withstand the darker elements of life and winter itself.
References
- The Schools’ Collection, Volume 0118, Page 4
- The Schools’ Collection, Volume 0051, Page 0254
- Ellis, Peter Berresford, The Druids, London, pg. 224.
- The Schools’ Collection, Volume 0051, Page 0254
- Macalister, Stewart, Lebor Gabála Érenn, Vol. 6 – Index, pg. 76.
- Mahon, Michael, Ireland’s Fairy Lore, 1919, pg. 195.
- Macalister, Stewart, Lebor Gabála Érenn, Vol. 4, p. 306.
- Connellan, Owen, Annals of Ireland translated from The Original Irish of the Four Masters, Dublin, 1845, pg. 272.
- Ellis, Peter Berresford, The Druids, London, pg. 94.
- The Schools’ Collection, Volume 0038, Page 0292
- Francis, D. My Highland Kellas Cats. Johnathan Cape: London, 1993.
- Thompson, F.G. A Scottish Bestiary: the Lore and Literature of Scottish Beasts. The Molendinar Press: Glasgow, 1978.
Isla Skye
Isla is an American Irish mother of 3, teacher, author and herbalist that splits her time between the states and Ireland. She has been studying folklore as well as the druids and related practices for over 20 years. Her hobbies are family time, reading, camping, hiking, spending time with her many animals as well as writing and research.