Druid and Poet Survival Through Irish Christianity

How the Brehon Laws and equally as pertinent to my point, the Senchus Mór came into being is incredibly fascinating and as per usual, shrouded in mystery and pseudo historical accounts. The name means ‘Great Ancient Tradition’ and it is claimed that the text was written by request of the renowned Irish King Lóegaire in the 5th century.

By this time, St. Patrick had visited Ireland twice to ‘disseminate religion’ among the Gaels and promote his own belief system of Christianity. Lóegaire as well as his druid council were sceptical and agreed that they would entertain St. Patrick’s beliefs of offering forgiveness to criminals only if he could forgive a man that killed one of his own to which St. Patrick agreed. Lóegaire allowed his brother Nuada Derg to hurl a spear towards St. Patrick and his men, striking and killing Odhran, Patrick’s charioteer. St. Patrick raised his hands into the air and a great eclipse fell over the sun which was seen as a peculiar omen and one that was respected as a sign of the changing times. 

St. Patrick forgave the man in the name of his God and Nuada was then put to death per old Irish law of the time for his crime. The druids remained sceptical and questioned St. Patrick specifically in regard to what would keep members of their society from committing crimes if they could hypothetically do any heinous wrongdoing and still be offered forgiveness. Nonetheless, the group of men determined that the law moving forward would be a combination of both forgiveness and judgement. The law of the land of “an eye for an eye” would remain somewhat intact but that punishments were nonetheless, lessened as well as the forgiveness of God being offered, especially before an execution. 

After these events, St. Patrick was tasked with helping to transfer the old oral traditions into writing and it is alluded that anything that was not palatable to Christianity may have been modified or left out as it was said that… “Now the judgments of true nature which the Holy Ghost had spoken through the mouths of the Brehons and the poets of the men of Erin, from the first occupation of this island, down to the reception of the faith, were exhibited by Dubhthach to Patrick. What did not clash with the Word of God in the written law and in the New Testament, and with the consciences of the believers, was confirmed in the laws of the Brehons by Patrick and by the ecclesiastics and the chieftains of Erin; for the law of nature had been quite right, except the faith, and its obligations and the harmony of the church and the people. And this is the Senchus Mor.”

Reading this alone, we can see why this text is so critical to understanding old Irish law as well as getting a broader understanding of where the druids fit within it. It was said that in attendance of this compilation task were three kings, including King Lóegaire, Corc and Dairi, three poets Rossa, Dubhthach and Ferghus and three ecclesiastes, including St. Patrick, Benen and Cairnech. It’s interesting that in this task, there were nine contributors, a sacred number that appears often throughout Irish mythical tales. The text itself is dated to the 7th and 8th centuries while the events of its creation are dated to the 5th so many scholars feel that while the legitimacy of the text in its content could be somewhat real, who actually wrote it will ultimately remain a mystery. The manipulation of characters, writers or timelines to increase the validity of a text or story, a practice very common of that time across the world, somewhat speaks for itself. I find that the symbolism or lessons of stories is what is most often genuinely preserved. 

In the first few pages of the text, a history is laid out with mention of Amergin, the Milesian poet who was the foster son of Cai Cainbrethach. Cai was said to study in Egypt and later returned home to become the first Brehon… which derived from his name Cainbrethach and means ‘judge’. Britheamh is a related word with the same meaning and reference in Scotland based on the Old Irish word brithem which means the same as Brehon. Other famous and heralded druids in the beginning of the text include Sen Mac Aige, Brigh Ambui (woman), Connla Cainbhrethach, Sencha MacCuil Clain, Sencha Mac Ailella, Morann Mac Main, Neridh Mac Finnchuill, Feradhach Finnfechtnach, Doidin Mac Uin, Moenach Mac Nine, Fiachna Fialbhrethach, Credine Cerd, Luchtuine Saor and Dianchecht. There are others mentioned a few pages later. Dubthach maccu Lugair and Fergus the poet were said to be the chief writers but more importantly, are who included the knowledge of previous listed poets. It was said that… “It was only necessary for them to exhibit from memory what their predecessors had sung, and it was corrected in presence of Patrick according to the written Law which Patrick had brought with him and they arranged and added to it.” 

The sense from the text that a true judgement was important and expected of the druids cannot be overstated. It was said that when Brehons deviated from the truth and made a bad or false judgement, red blotches appeared on their cheeks, all the fruit in the territory fell off under ripe or cows refused milk to their calves. For the worst of all offences, a Brehon may be deprived of his profession entirely. The importance of morality was of such high importance that in actuality no-one was above the law. Even in the upper echelon of society, if the king committed unlawful or untruthful acts, the king lost half of his dire-fine while the lesser chieftains, priests or poets lost all of it. As already mentioned, many Irish scholars feel that bog bodies may have been ritually dispatched kings or chieftains that ultimately failed at their duties. No one was above recompense and could have been stripped of their titles, ran off their property and out of town. Also by losing their dire-fine, they now had a target on their back in the sense that crimes could be committed against them without punishment. Both of these occurrences will be explored further on. 

In the text it was said that the creation of the elements was first, and then time, and then finally, humans which contained a body and non-body of which the belief in reincarnation is further confirmed. It’s mentioned that the earth is a perfectly round ball which is fixed in the middle by a firmament. Next, came the creation of the soil and water. Following this was the creation of the twelve winds and then the colours of the wind. The name of space was ‘nether,’ heaven without wind. From there, the zodiac is described as the “King (God) divided the year into twelve divisions, and gave a name to each division respectively; and the figures of the divisions are set each in its own place.” The bible doesn’t mention the zodiac explicitly although the symbolism is arguably present through Christ’s story himself. From this, we might assume at minimum that the druids had learned knowledge of and possibly implemented the zodiac in their sphere of practices or belief. A possibility is of course not a guarantee. However, rather than dates that overlap two months, the months are given in association with the signs directly as follows…

January – Aquarius

February – Pisces

March – Aries

April – Taurus

May – Gemini

June – Cancer 

July – Leo

August – Virgo

September – Libra

October – Scorpio 

November – Sagittarius

December – Capricornus

Was this a supplantation over the previous standard of keeping time with the lunar phases of the year? Possibly. There were five things that should be known everyday to every intelligent person and these were the day of the solar month, the age of the moon, the flow of the tide, the day of the week and the festivals of saints (and likely the old folk festivals). It is auspicious that the compilation of the Senchus was completed at the “…end of nine years after the arrival of Patrick in Erin.” The laws that remained mostly unchanged were the laws relating to things like fosterage, tenants, marriage, social or familial relationships and the binding nature of verbal contracts. I find the idea of one keeping their word continues to weigh heavily, even in our modern age. 

The druids’ relationship with St. Patrick was repeatedly expressed as contentious, although it can’t be overstated that the texts surrounding St. Patrick are again, considered pseudo. I think that again, the overall symbolism written of these exchanges is in some respects, much more important than what actually happened. In my opinion, it has to be symbolically relevant that every exchange with the druids puts St. Patrick at odds with them. In the monk Muirchú moccu Machtheni’s Vita sancti Patricii he mentions that St. Patrick was the slave of a druid named Milúch moccu Bóin and that Patrick served him for seven years before leaving to go abroad. When he returned years later, he intended to pay the druid for the price of his freedom and convert him. When the old druid got word of this, instead of being converted, he chose to burn himself alive with all of his wealthy belongings. This to me was a symbolic representation of the reluctance of natives to convert which is only corroborated by other literature of this time period. Clearly, the druid didn’t have to convert against his will… but again, as a symbolic representation, this story becomes more understandable. 

In another exchange, St. Patrick lit a holy fire on the Hill of Tara near Easter, likely Bealtaine, when it was forbidden to do so until the designated time. King  Lóegaire and his druids as well as festival attendees and St. Patrick all went to the sacred hill where he had lit the fire. The most powerful druid stepped forward named Lochru and “…provoked the holy man and dared to revile the catholic faith with haughty words. Holy Patrick looked at him as he uttered such words and, as Peter had said concerning Simon, so with power and with a loud voice he confidently said to the Lord: ‘O Lord, who art all-powerful and in whose power is everything, who hast sent me here, may this impious man, who blasphemes thy name, now be cast out and quickly perish.’ And at these words the druid was lifted up into the air and fell down again; he hit his brain against a stone, and was smashed to pieces, and died in their presence, and the pagans stood in fear.”¹

In the next exchange, a second druid named Luchat Mael who was in attendance of the troublesome night prior sat with St. Patrick at dinner and put a drop of poison in his drink in an attempt of retaliation. St. Patrick froze the cup and dumped it upside down so that only the drop of poison fell out. The druid then brought a snow storm and then fog and St. Patrick banished both. The king suggested to “Cast your books into the water, and he whose books remain unharmed, him we shall adore.” St. Patrick agreed but the druid did not, insisting that water was a god to him. St. Ronan’s Psalter was preserved after being thrown into water as well in the story of Buile Shuibhne. Although, we do know that water was indeed sacred to those of native folk belief by the sheer amount of sacred wells, the deities associated with them as well as items thrown into them thought to be in exchange for blessings.

They both then agreed to fire as a means of a ‘test’ to see who was more worthy. St. Patrick had a house built and split in half where one of his boys was on one side wearing the druid’s robe and the druid was on the other side wearing St. Patrick’s robe. The entire house was set on fire but only the boy survived, while his druid robe burned. The druid burned alive while St. Patrick’s robe was sustained. After which, “The king’s anger was aroused against Patrick because of the death of his druid, and he was on the point of attacking him, wishing to take his life; but God held him back. For at the prayer and the word of Patrick the wrath of God descended upon the impious people, and many of them died. And holy Patrick said to the king: ‘If you do not believe now you shall die at once, for the wrath of God has come down upon your head.’ And the king was in great fear, his heart trembling, and so was his entire city.”¹

In Tripartite Life with notes by Muirchu Maccu-Machtheni in the Book of Armagh, an interesting yet unsettling transaction happens between two of King Lóegaire’s daughters, Ethne the fair, and Fedelm the ruddy. They “…came to the spring in the morning, after the custom of women, to wash, and they found a holy synod of bishops with Patrick by the spring. And they did not know from whence they were, or of what shape, or of what people, or of what region. But they thought that they were men of the side, or of the terrestrial gods, or an apparition. And the daughters said to them “Whence are ye, and whence have ye come?” And Patrick said to them, “It were better that you would confess our true God than to inquire about our race.” The first daughter said, “Who is God? And where is God? And of what is God? The exchange continues until St. Patrick’s convinces them to commit suicide… “And they were baptized, and [Patrick placed] a white garment on their heads. And they begged to see the face of Christ. And the saint said to them: “Unless you shall have tasted death, you cannot see the face of Christ, and unless you shall receive the sacrifice.” And they replied: “Give to us the sacrifice, that we may see the Son our spouse.” And they received the Eucharist of God, and they slept in death. And they placed them in a bed covered with one mantle, and their friends made a wailing and a great lamentation…. And the days of the wailing for the daughters of the king were ended, and they buried them by the spring Clebach…” 

Delving more into the Senchus Mór, there are two important practices that Patrick outlawed which we will explore further along which include the divination practices of Imbas Forosnai, ‘Knowledge that Illuminates’ and Tenm Laida or Teinm Laegda, ‘Breaking of marrow’ or ‘Chewing the flesh’. He allowed Dichetal Do Chennaibh, ‘Chanting From Heads’ possibly because chanting was also a large part of Christian culture as well or it may have been that singing and music was simply too impossible to ban. What wasn’t outlawed that continued was the importance of education, poetry and music. The druids continued on as judges and poets as well as cultural and historical repositories. The ways in which that knowledge was transferred from one generation to the next also continued forward through learned schools by the druids themselves, typically at their homes. The old stories were written down and preserved in various texts by both druids or monks, sometimes in a collaborative effort. 

Why was Ireland the last stronghold of true druids and more specifically what proof do we have of this? The title of their roles changed, but the role was maintained. These were known as either the Brehons (judges) or the Filidh, more commonly, Filí (poets, seers, counselors, teachers, historians). Female poets were called Banfilí. While we do have proof of Irish female poets, it was very rare for them to have been in the spotlight of tribal political issues for probably a mixture of both logical and emotional reasoning of the time period. The main motivation for many women was still raising their families and keeping them healthy which were in turn crucial factors of keeping the community healthy. Women were the ones who tended the inner hearth fires of their homes, literally and figuratively. Their expertise may have naturally surrounded aspects of tribal life that were more personal and private that had no political purpose for being mentioned in books. 

The loose evidence we have of this is also that the poet was a largely hereditary role with both women and men said to pass on their learned knowledge. Much more often you’ll see a man quoted as learning a trade from his father but occasionally you’d still read about a woman taking up her mother’s profession or of a man who took to a profession via his mother’s line or at minimum, took his mother’s name after acquiring her inheritance. In one instance, a female poet named Máire Ní Dhonnchadha Dhuibh took on the role after her uncle and her grandfather; however her father was also a wealthy chieftain, Domhnall Ó Donnchadha. To give a very literal sense of how rare a recognized female poet was, out of the approximately 170+ Irish and Scottish poets I found referenced from the 5th century to the year 1800, only 7 were women. There is one reference to a female Chief Ollamh named Uallach ingen Muinecháin in the 10th century. From my own personal perspective, the fact that it was possible is still culturally telling. It didn’t have to be common to be relevant. The same can be said about the Catholic church including women in their ranks and as saints.   

There may have been some crossover in these functions with someone being both a Brehon and a Filí. The name Filí derives from Proto-Celtic weleti which means ‘to see’ or ‘seer’.² These were clearly druidic roles based on their function and titles alone. There were 7 to 8 levels or categories of Filí and naturally they had different roles within their individual túaths or tribes and acquired unique knowledge based on the number of years they had been studying. When all was said and done, they would have studied for 20+ years which was again, referenced by Caesar of the druids of old in Gaul. Each tribe would have had their own head Ollamh (highest rank of Filí ) and then each province would have then had a head Ollamh above the tribe and finally the Ollamh Érenn or the Chief Ollamh was the master poet of all of Ireland and the Ollamh rig Alban, the master poet of Scotland. 

Poet is somewhat of a misleading word to describe them because they held nearly the same power as well as still maintained a role in ritualistic social functions such as the inauguration of kings. Whenever a new king was inaugurated, they continued the tradition of heralding their genealogy, history and pedigree. These were known variously as panegyrics. If not at inaugurations, these panegyrics may have also been read at community festivals or other significant social events. Anyone held to high esteem through what was perceived as hero worthy actions was often heralded in what was variously known as a form of praise poetry. Vice versa, people seemingly deserving of being criticized were done so through satire. Community members who had passed away, especially relatives or patrons were honored through lament poetry. Likely, both the Filí and Banfilí were particularly responsible for having a hand in singing laments or more aptly known as Sean-nós keening rituals at funerals.   

They were also, as mentioned many times, the living repositories of old folklore and connected to the later term, the Irish seanchaí or the Scottish seanchaidh who were storytellers and historians, serving again, as oral repositories. This term means ‘bearer of old lore’ and is still in use today to describe native storytellers of which there are many wonderful and sacred people who have taken up the mantle of keeping the old tales alive using traditional storytelling methods often incorporating music and instruments. Other related words are filedacht which means their use of ‘poetry or divination’ and draíocht which means magic, enchantment or druidic arts. 

The old levels and their required learned stories were as follows:

1 year – Ollaire, Taman, Drisac (20 stories)

2 years – Fochlac (30)

3 years – MacFiurmedh (40)

4 years – Doss (50)

5 years – Cana (60

6 years – Cli (80)

7 – 9 years – Ánrad (175)

10 – 12 years – Ollamh (350)

The way stories were memorized had to be exactly as they were told to them as well as retold with feeling and emotion to where the listeners were ‘spellbound’. They would have also had to learn Ogham, various chants and divination methods, how to compose poetry and music, especially, as already mentioned, satire, praise or lament poetry. Ireland had a large preoccupation with honor, likely due to the family structures as already discussed whereby one person represented the whole of the group and they were responsible for each other’s actions through dire fines. The high value of being honorable naturally lended to the significance of praise or satire poetry. 

True magical satire was believed to not only ruin someone, but could possibly cause physically visible blemishes or even death. If a poet was also a Brehon, they would have memorized law codes and interpreted the law to make their decisions in a similar way as judges do today. Many of these learned practices outside of learning the law, would have surely incorporated music and most poets would have known how to play various instruments, most commonly the harp. When they were sharing a poem or story with their tribe or to guests, music was considered powerful magic in that it easily sways our mood. There were three ‘strains’ of music that were intended to make us happy and dance (geantrai), sorrowful and emotional (goitrai) or finally, relaxed and sleepy (suantrai). 

Most of the main tales (Especially the Táin Bó Cuailgne or Cath Maige Tuired) that were shared were designed to illuminate and summarize the inner workings of the Irish honor codes, often concerning marriage, kingship, political conflict, the integral relationship with the land and related deities as well as the techniques used to achieve divination. One of the additional reasons we know that the poets were very comparable to the old druids is in the way they were cared for by the kings and queens of Ireland. They had an honor price that again, was only second to the king and they were given land as part of their inheritance and for their service. They were also not required to pay taxes and had a place of honor sitting with and dining with the kings and queens at feasts. 

If they went into battle, it was probably from a safe distance and they may have been conjuring magic or performing rituals from a place of protection yet still doing their part spiritually to aid in battles. I mention this possibility because of druids being quoted as using magic during many battles in various Irish myths. This role overall falls in line with what was mentioned by Caesar in that the druids were not required to participate in war (physically) or pay taxes and could travel anywhere (generally, but not always) without harm, even into neighboring enemy territory. Brehon Law mentions ‘ten immovable rocks’ which determined the ownership of land and one of these was the confirmation or chanting of the words of poets. 

They were not invulnerable and Dáithí Ó hÓgáin describes an event that happened in 1591 where a druid had ‘refreshments’ stolen by six people of the Ó hEadhra, O’Hara tribe. He severely chastised them, to which they returned shortly afterwards to torture him and cut out his tongue. They also killed his wife and one child while seemingly letting his older son survive. His last poem described their barbarous treatment before he died although some accounts dispute this and that he was killed before he could write about it.³ His name was Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn. Additionally, multiple Chief Ollamhs were said to be murdered violently or in retaliation for their satire including, Flann mac Lonáin in the 9th century, Bard Boinne in the 10th century, Cúán úa Lothcháin in the 11th century, Gilla na Trínóite Ua Dálaigh and Cú Collchaille Ua Baígilláin (along with his whole family) in the 12th century. In 1572, Conor O’Brien, the 3rd Earl of Thomond, had three bards hung and killed for unknown reasons. Soon after the Flight of the Earls, a poet named Aonghus Ruadh na nAor Ó Dálaigh, well known for his satires was swiftly assassinated in 1617 after writing The Tribes of Ireland, a satire poking fun at multiple families and meant to instigate hostility between them. He accepted this grievous task from Sir George Carew and Lord Mountjoy Charles Blount who both served Queen Elizabeth I during her reign of terror in Ireland. You could almost assume he had a death wish…

To say that the Christian monks of the time and the Filí were the same isn’t accurate but it is fair to say that there was much overlap and they certainly had to interact and intermingle with one another to share knowledge. The overlap in roles and identities naturally grew larger as Christianity gained popularity. Early monastic scholars at minimum likely had visits, friendships or professional partnerships with poets on an individual basis. Many poets were probably trained at monastic schools. The fact of the matter is these were still Irish people that were organically encouraging a more seamless cultural integration of Christianity by including the aspects of their culture that they deemed acceptable within their newly embraced moral narrative. Simply because someone converts to Christianity doesn’t automatically mean they suddenly lose all interest in the other aspects of the culture they grew up in. Additionally, much of the collective resistance to British colonization over time was coming from Catholic priests. In other words, they still had a lot of commonalities and shared sentiments that went beyond religion which encouraged a shared sense of nationalism and cultural cohesion. 

Quite famously, in a letter to the Pope Gregory in 604 the Irish missionary and saint St. Colum Cille said “The culture engaged in becoming dominant, in this case the culture of the early European Christian Church, had both to make concessions and invent attractions if its aims were to be fulfilled.” Additionally, the Pope went on to say just a few years later in a letter to Abbot Mellitus, a bishop in London, in regards to the various native folk religions of the entire region, Ireland included, “…that the idol temples of that race should by no means be destroyed, but only the idols in them. For if the shrines are well built, it is essential that they should be changed from the worship of devils to the service of the true God. When this people see that their shrines are not destroyed they will be able to banish error from their hearts and be more ready to come to the places they are familiar with, but now recognizing and worshiping the true God… It is doubtless impossible to cut out everything at once from their stubborn minds.”

Another example of their interwoven relationship is exhibited by the fact that some Christian figures were taught by druids or ‘magicians’ such as was the case with St. Samson being taught by the druid Eltut.⁴ There are at minimum many examples in Christian literature of acknowledging magicians or druids in a continued role of offering and providing counsel to community members. As an example, before St. Ciarán, the Elder was conceived, Ciarán’s mother had a dream that a star fell into her mouth. She related this dream to the ‘magicians’ who were ‘…the knowledgeable ones of the time.’ They told her that she would bear a son whose fame and virtues would be known as far as the world’s end.⁵ There is an interesting old hymn designated to St. Colum Cille where he said ‘Is e mo drai Crist mac De, Christ the Son of God is my druid.’ In the hagiography of St. Brigid, a druid prophesied that she would be ‘marvellous’ and unlike anyone in all of the land. She would be noble and revered and ‘…as sun shineth among stars, so will shine the maiden’s deeds and merits.’ Later in the text, the druid agrees to be baptized and accompanies Brigid from that time onward.⁶ St. Fintán of Taghmon was also the son of a druid named Tulchan.⁷ 

St. Caillín was also said to be the son of a druid, Dubthach maccu Lugair. Dubthach is of course the famous druid of King Lóegaire mac Néill mentioned earlier, and one of the writers and contributors of The Senchus Mór. In fact, there is local legend regarding St. Caillín who was said to have helped his ‘druid’ brother Senchán Torpéist recover the lost and famous tale Táin Bó Cúailnge. Caillín purportedly invited St. Colum Cille, St. Ciarán of Clonmacnoise, St. Brendan of Birr and St. Brendan son of Finnlogh, to meet at the grave of the great hero of the Táin, Fergus mac Róich. There they fasted and prayed for three days and three nights, after which the dead Fergus was said to appear to them and recanted the whole story. The celebrated epic tale was then preserved in the Book of the Dun Cow, so called because its parchment was made from the hide of St. Ciaran’s favorite cow. In another version of how the epic tale was recorded, Senchán, accompanied by his son Murgen and his cousin Emine, travelled overseas in search of the missing book containing the tale to return it to Ireland. Murgen became lost in a magical mist during their travels and encountered the ghost of Fergus mac Róich at his grave. Fergus again, related the whole tale to Murgen, who then retold the story in full to his father. 

With all of this said, there are of course an equal or even greater amount of Christian texts condemning ‘magicians’. In one of the best known examples of this, in the Bethada Náem nÉrenn, Lives of Irish Saints, it was said that… “Cainech, the step-mother of Faelan, heard that Faelan was a child of special promise, she was seized with envy and jealousy of him; for she feared—what afterwards came about—that the kingdom would be conferred on Faelan to the exclusion of her own children. She came (therefore) with her band of witches (lit. women of power) to Glendalough, to ply druidism, and (magic) craft, and paganism, and diabolic science upon the boy to destroy him. And an angel revealed this to Coemgen; and Coemgen bade Berach go and stop these devilish powers; and Berach went on this errand. And he saw Cainech on the summit of the mountain, worshipping the devil, and practising druidism. And Berach made prostrations and prayers, and said to Cainech and her band of women: ‘Get you under the earth.’ The earth forthwith swallowed up Cainech and her band of women; and therefore (the place) is called Cainech’s Swamp in Glendalough. And on her head the dogs of the monastery void their excrement from that time forth till doom.” If that story doesn’t speak for itself, I don’t know what does… 

The role of poet at some stage became limited to certain families deemed to have been the most respected and with having the most well known lineage of Filí. As mentioned before, these were families such as Ó Dálaigh (O’ Daly), Ó hUiginn (O’Higgin), Ó Dochartaigh (O’ Doherty) and Ó Cobhthaigh (O’ Coffey) to name just a few. From the Scottish lens, these were families most commonly with the surname MacMhuirich, MacEanraig, MacGregor, MacLachlans and MacDougalls. Many of these families over time can be observed being subsumed into the roles of the church while others remained as a poet. Being a priest was probably viewed as an acceptable use of their learned skills and they were still fulfilling their destined societal role, just under a different religious mantle. 

A few examples include Aodh Ó hUiginn becoming the Bishop of Mayo in 1439.⁸ There are some saints such as St. Dallán, a Chief Ollamh of Ireland who was referenced as both a poet and a saint.⁹ His nickname was ‘little blind one’ after it was said that he lost his sight from studying too intensely. Even though he wasn’t a priest, he was responsible for founding several churches in Ireland. In a list of ancient Irish authors contained in the Book of Ballymote, Dallán is called the ‘grandson of testimony.’¹⁰ Colmánm, son of Léiníne, was both a saint and poet in the 6th century. Daniel Ua Liathaide, a dual abbot of Lismore and Cork was also a poet who wrote the famous Advice to a Woman when he was declining an offer of interest. Aodh Buidhe Mac an Bhaird, born in 1593 became a Franciscan monk and expert in hagiography. He was another hereditary bard as is apparent from his very name. He was the son of Eoghan Ruadh Mac an Bhaird who accompanied Ruaidhrí Ó Domhnaill Earl of Tyrconnell, into exile during the Flight of the Earls in 1607 who also became a monk. In a later example from the 17th century, Robert Chamberlain, an Irish Franciscan friar, wrote controversial satirical poems under the pseudonym Roibeard Mac Artúir. In the 18th century, Liam Inglis was another man who was both an Augustinian priest and well known Jacobite poet. 

Another important reference considerably affirms this idea. A man named Cenn-Fáelad was said to be injured at the battle of Mag Roth between the high-king Domnall, son of Áed and Congal Clóen, king of Dál nAraide. After his injury, he was taken to the house of a physician named Bricc at Túaim Drecain, County Cavan. It was found that he had a ‘brain of forgetfulness’ which was to be removed. Afterwards, he acquired the powers of memory, and was able to absorb and record the three schools of learning: légend, monastic Latin learning, fénechas, native law and filidecht, poetry. The preface to the Bretha Étgid, Judgements of Inadvertence, i.e. accidents, is a late poetico-legal tract attributed to Cenn-Fáelad which states: “And three law schools there were in the town, a Latin school and a school of Irish law and a school of Irish learning. And everything that he used to hear of what was recited in the three schools, he had it by memory every night. And he set these things in a pattern of poetry and wrote them on slates and tablets, and transferred them into a vellum book.” As the Irish law tract Uraicecht Becc, Small Primer puts it, “Any judgement of a cleric that exists is based on the truth and the entitlement of Scripture. A poet’s judgement is based on maxims. A ruler’s judgement, however, is based on them all, on maxims and precedents and scriptural testimonies.” Works attributed to him include the last part of the invaluable Auraicept na nÉces, The Scholars’ Primer.¹¹ My point is that native education was likely taught in Catholic schools from its very introduction on the island and this overall makes the transition in roles additionally, incredibly easy.

The overlap of roles and functions became more integrated and widespread slowly over time with arguably, some additional political motivation. Joining the Catholic church network came with benefits in all levels of high society in Europe to say the least. The Catholic church collectively remains as one of the wealthiest religious entities in the world. It would take me ages to list all of the examples but the transition from native folk belief to a more fuller Christianity was slow, layered and nuanced. It also illustrates why most scholars agree wholeheartedly that early myths written down by Irish Christians were in actuality much older stories. These were still native people collectively connected to folk belief in a way that was very alive and meaningful. Ireland is called the land of ‘saints and scholars’ with good reason considering the level at which education was and still remains incredibly important as Ireland is one of the most college educated countries in the world today. A lot of folk beliefs and practices were likely kept alive just simply because of the love for knowledge and tradition regardless of religious affinity. 

“Where do you hide a pebble but on the beach.” – Ben McBrady

Roman Christianity, since its inception, typically took on ‘acceptable’ features of the local and surrounding cultures in order to be more adaptable and palatable. After the old Gaelic chieftains were no longer there to support their people, who else did the Irish citizens have to turn to? The church has been historically efficacious converting people at desperate points in life, while at the same time being well meaning. To this day, churches are sometimes the singular entity in communities providing genuinely free food, clothes, counseling and other resources to the most needy and poor. 

Detailed church records tell us consistently throughout Irish history that traditional folkloric practices were largely maintained and simply supplanted with a clear gloss of Christianity. We know this because of certain practices being listed as a point of news and being outlawed such as in the 17th century, various Catholic priests made sweeping rules within their diocesans that “…all Sheela-na-gigs were to be burned.”¹² That is of course the ones that were wooden and that could be burned. Luckily, we still have many stone examples of Sheelas that were thankfully not thrown away, broken or buried. One hardly has to dig anywhere in Ireland to find a relic of past folk belief. This is all to say that church records combined with Irish mythological literature and traditional folkloric practices passed down collectively lend strong evidence that traditional belief was always very alive in Ireland and continues into the present. This further supports the idea I brought up earlier of the poets not disappearing but instead being subsumed into other various cultural roles. All of the evidence that I have read lends me to believe that the druids did everything they could to survive and thrive and that they did. 

Another indicator that poets and the bardic tradition thrived long after Christianity arrived is the fact that some bardic families didn’t even get started until the 14th century such as the Ó hEódhusa or O’Hussey family. They were generally affiliated with the Maguire lords and supplanted the Ó Fialáin and the Mac Rithbheartaigh families, who were the previous praise poets to the Maguire dynasty. As late as the 1500’s, the satire of poets was considered an effective method of encouraging someone to keeping agreements whereby if someone broke the terms laid before them, whatever those were, they would be satirized as punishment.¹³ This is all the more amazing considering that by the earlier 13th century onward, the Catholic church was torturing and murdering ‘heretics’ left, right and center. The practices of witch burning or torture until confession or conversion reached Ireland’s edges albeit not nearly as much as mainland Europe. Instead of countless examples we have occuring in other countries, there are maybe a handful in Ireland. 

Lady Alice Kyteler and Petronilla de Meath were two of the most well known victims of these practices in Ireland in the early 1300’s. Kyteler made a successful escape while Petronilla was tortured and burned alive in 1324. While many people accused of witchcraft or ‘dark arts’ were likely completely innocent, it’s also possible these women or others were genuinely guilty of murder. The use of poison to cause harm by ‘witches’ was very real and not all folk practitioners were good. Whether a murder was justified is also of great debate and the fact that a woman was powerful enough to do this on behalf of herself or others, is also relevant in regards to the false justification of accusations and consequential punishment. There’s clearly a lot of grey area but in Ireland, most folk practitioners were still looked upon somewhat fondly and with respect into the common era such as Biddy Early, various Bean Feasas or Fear Feasas, the ‘wise’ women and men, fairy doctors and poets themselves. 

Through the poetry of Irish medieval poets it’s clear that many were summoned to successfully and rightfully defend their arts as ‘gifts from God’. Giolla Brighde Mac Con Midhe (McNamee) was one such hereditary Ollamh who wrote a powerful poem in response to what he interpreted as harmful sentiments of the clergy…

“Messenger who comes from Rome

The sower of sermons, 

Do as the pen dictates

And tell no tale except the text

Produce the ban as the Pope

In the East gave it to you; 

If he gave you a dark-meaning leaf

That is indisputable, deliver it!

As was said in Rome,

“Let your doctrine be improved sufficiently!”

There could be no other meaning there:

That much is burden enough to bear.

You were not told in Rome,

Cleric, that the clerisy shall be cast out;

No, but from some pseudo-Rome

You bring a rotten teaching!

Where is it written in scripture 

That the art shall be disgraced?

Do as I challenge:

Show the story of your script!

The word was never found in books,

That no reward be given to many-formed poetry;

It is an ugly, barbarous learning

That would have Ireland’s poets expelled!

Every sweet poem in the heart

And body of learning is God’s gift,

Recite it, decipher its sense

Without a doubt it is God’s giving

To praise men

Is to praise him who made them

No man in the world has praise

That is not praise to his miracles.”¹⁴

The poem goes on for 33 total quatrains defending the art of poetry and its valuable purpose within Irish culture. He also warned that without poetry and a means of cultural remembrance, Ireland would descend into what he alludes to as cultural chaos and ruin. There are quite a few other examples of a similar tension and cultural push and pull between the poets and clergy, who found themselves at odds, especially throughout the 1700’s. One poet named Aindrias Mac Craith was run out of his town by his local priest for his heavy drinking and composing songs of a more sexual nature. In another example, a poet named Art Mac Cumhaigh married his 2nd cousin and was again, run out by the local priest for admonishing this decision.

Eoghan ‘Rua’ Ó Súilleabháin was pressured to close his hedge school (one of the last in existence) by local clerical opposition because of his sexually manipulative exploits, promiscuity and negative reputation. Bardic poet Eoghan ‘an Mhéirín’ Mac Cárthaigh wrote well known satires of the time criticizing his local parish priests for being ill-tempered, taking the place of the gentry and another priest for being greedy and causing hardships for his parishioners. It becomes clear as we read these examples that in a similar way that has continued into the present, we collectively tend to challenge what is unreasonable and affirm what is not. I personally think some of the reasons for poets being ostracized such as marrying your cousin or being a womanizer were very reasonable while others, such as the art of poetry itself, is worth defending. 

I think this is overall a sign of a healthy society and too much going in one direction from a fundamental religious perspective has collectively and statistically, a higher incidence of negative repercussions. The idea of poets ‘battling off’ against leaders or one another as poets was quite common, especially between tribes that were at odds with one another. In fact, according to Dáithí Ó hÓgáin… “The Irish poets were much given to contests of wit, usually carried on in the following way. When two of them met, one repeated the first half of a verse or very short poem, which was a challenge to the other to complete it… In Ireland it was believed that a true poet never failed to respond correctly, so that this was a test often applied to expose a poetical pretender.”¹⁵ When we read these collective accounts, it really humanizes the poets. They were simply passionate, educated and caring community members with flaws, mistakes, triumphs, great loves and losses, like anyone else. They weren’t always perfect models of morality and this is affirmed in the Irish myths as well where some druids were known to be cruel. 

Unlike Christian clergy, most poets had wives or husbands as well as children. They had lives beyond their spiritual and communal roles which inevitably led to their becoming less prominent or able to compete with Christian clergy who were more available over time as counselors and communal figureheads. It remains relevant today where we are often forced to choose between family life and our political, creative or spiritual life where we inevitably choose to put more energy into our children and families. Over time, the poems were still written, but not as widely published or known. They were instead slid into the folds of journals, lost accidentally or burned in bonfires as silent testimonies of unspeakable emotions. 

What ultimately mostly led to the sharp decline, but not total elimination of the druids… the traditional bards, seanchaí, Filí and Ollamh was very clearly English imperial colonialism. The pressure on chieftains from 1100 – 1700 was intense and perpetual. The Flight of the Earls in 1607 marked a huge change in old Irish Gaelic society when the last two great houses, the O’Neill and O’Donnell clans, were defeated after The Nine Years War with England led by Queen Elizabeth I. Traditional Irish Brehon Law was abolished and officially replaced (although unofficially unabided) with English common law. Harsh laws were enacted that prevented certain families or Catholics from owning land. Land was seized en masse and plantation puppets were set up on stolen lands, mostly English or Scottish protestants (after the English Reformation). 

Natural resources were habitually stripped and shipped out of the country such as trees and crops. This all inevitably placed financial strain on Gaelic chieftains and all levels of Irish society when the poets were simply not able to be supported in employment, at least officially. During the time period shortly after this from 1616 to 1624, the bards had a controversial Iomarbhágh na bhFileadh or Contention of the Bards where the principal bardic poets wrote poems against each other and in support of their patrons. This was a natural reaction to voicing their frustration and concern with the state of the country itself. They were in essence, searching for who to point fingers at to blame for why they collectively landed in the weakened state they were in and additionally, under English rule. This period would be the last time that a uniquely Irish style of poetry known as Dán Díreach would be performed. This was a complex form of recitative poetry and composition designed to be chanted to the accompaniment of a harp that included multiple other members of the tribe beyond the poet themselves. 

Discontent, various battles and relentless trauma continued until the early 1900’s (arguably into the present via the Troubles and Hunger Strikes) when finally in 1922, Ireland became its own country within the Commonwealth, excepting for the North of Ireland. Ireland went on to officially leave the Commonwealth in 1949. Some of the most notable losses of culture can be attributed to quite a few significant events during and after the ‘Tudor Conquest of Ireland’ that brought about the Plantation of Ulster (1607 – present), The Wars of the Three Kingdoms (Irish Confederate Wars) and Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland (1639 – 1653), Williamite War (1689 – 1691), Penal Laws (1695 – 1829), Irish Rebellion of 1798, an Gorta Mór (1845 – 1852), Irish War of Independence (1919 – 1921), Irish Civil War (1922 – 1923) and The Troubles (1960s – 1998).

The sheer loss of so many learned people at this time, often burned, including Catholic priests and monks is unfathomable. By the end of the Cromwellian conquest alone, it’s estimated that 300,000 to 600,000 Irish people had died, 20 – 40% of Ireland’s population. Upwards of 50,000 more were forced to leave in indentured servitude, both willing and unwilling just to escape the hellscape that England’s aristocracy had orchestrated. Just 200 years later, approximately 1 million Irish were killed during the manufactured famine and an additional 2 million were forced to emigrate. Irish people continued to emigrate over the next 50 years due to lack of opportunity and continued economic hardships. By 1900, Ireland had lost nearly half of its 8 million pre-famine population.

Without intense colonization and the direct impactful decisions of the English aristocracy, the poet’s role may have continued seamlessly into the present alongside Christianity. The Irish throughout these large scale conflicts were additionally forbidden from speaking their native language or from teaching their native traditions in schools. Certain music, dances and dress as well as nationalist newspapers or literature and anything that gave the impression of cultural cohesion were at minimum looked upon very negatively but often met with harsh punishments or death. The loss of the language had a further drastic impact on the loss of culture over time with the consequential loss of the meaning of place names as well as certain unique ideas and emotions. The Irish language is one of the oldest languages in the world and surely has preserved hidden meaning within the way our ancestors saw and interacted with the world around them as well as the beauty and inspiration they must have felt. There is a unique almost magical power that language holds. Words matter much more than I think we consciously realize both on an individual and societal level. It is a wonder that anything has survived which makes the manuscripts we do have all the more incredible. 

England’s aristocracy being heavily anti-Irish and anti-Scottish as well as anti-Welsh and anti-Cornish or really anything to do with a dissenting voice towards the crown is a very complicated topic. England was at one time colonized themselves, first through Roman occupation and then again by Anglo-Saxons and shortly after, the Normans (Norse and French) after being left weakened in Rome’s absence. Norman rulers wanted to continue their exploits beyond what had already been taken. Thus, early on, when England was a Catholic nation itself, the excuse was used regarding Ireland that it was not religious enough and it needed to be cured of its heathenry.

The Catholic church somewhat supported the Norman colonization of Ireland to which they were overall successful. Many Norman families acquired large swaths of land although it has always been said they were quick to assimilate. Their impact on architecture through Catholic cistercians becoming more widespread in Ireland was particularly massive. The Butlers of Ormond, the Fitzgeralds of Kildare, and the Burkes of Connacht are some of the more notable presences. This was overall a successful endeavor and Catholicism took a greater hold in Ireland as we have discussed at length. Many treaties were signed over the next few hundred years where essentially, Gaelic chieftains were forced to pledge allegiance to and recognize kings, such as the Norman king Henry II as the king of Ireland in exchange for protection against further land being seized by other Normans. These were of course usually false promises. 

Years later, after the English Reformation (When England ‘became’ Protestant.) was brought about so that King Henry VIII could divorce his wife Catherine, the Irish then became ‘too Catholic’. Catholic priests were consequently heavily targeted and impacted. There was a large concern over their religious as well as political allyship with Spain and France who were often England’s adversaries. There was a continued overall sentiment and fear of Ireland or Scotland becoming too powerful considering their close proximity and what the repercussions of that could or would be. These negative sentiments continued in various ways through each new monarch or Lord Protector in Cromwell’s case. 

The political energy of England during all of these militarized and strategically cruel events as well as other colonizing activity was in my opinion a remnant of Roman military tactics of dividing and conquering. English leaders would perpetually sow resentment between chieftains and pit one against the other. They found cracks in allegiances and used them to their advantage. Rome somehow submerged into ruin but at the same time, left a mark so deep that parts of it irrevocably remained wherever they colonized and unfortunately within some aspects of Roman Catholicism itself. Of course this is all a very simplified summary of what entire books have been written about. I think it’s important to establish that when colonization is discussed in this context, we’re addressing the monarchy and not the common folk who may or may not have had knowledge of what was happening or supported their decisions. The people living on English lands were often at war with their own monarchy, especially the Welsh who had their own long and expansive druid lineage, language and customs that were being purposefully snuffed out. 

The last true druids as we know them submerged into the depths of colonialism nearly completely, and yet continue to remain irrevocably present within the collective Irish and Irish diaspora subconscious. Despite all of this, there is still somewhat of an unbroken line of the poets in their varied yet overlapping titles and roles. As we look along the timeline of significant cultural figures, it becomes viscerally apparent in the ways that the culture, knowledge and practices were meticulously pulled through time. Countless people dedicated their lives composing, re-writing or translating all of the available knowledge and stories known to them. I hope the old druids, poets, priests and saints would be proud to know how the legends and folklore have amazingly lived on into the present despite so much trauma and forced cultural loss.

References 

1. Muirchú’s text Vita sancti Patricii in English (transl. L. Bieler).

2. Matasović, Ranko (2009) “welet-”, in Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series; 9), Leiden: pg. 410.

3. Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí, An File. 1982. Baile Átha Cliath: Foilseacháin Rialtais. Pg. 40.

4. Samson, Saint, Bishop of Dol, -565. 1925. The life of St. Samson of Dol. London : Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ; New York, : The Macmillan Co. pg. 60. 

5. O’Grady, Standish Hayes. 1970. Silva Gadelica (I-XXXI). Ed. Reprint of the 1892 ed. New York, Lemma Pub. Corp.

6. Stokes, Whitley. A Parallel. RC III (1878) 443f. [The story of Brigit and Breccán from Lebar Brecc (63b), with translation.]

7. Baring-Gould, Sabine: The lives of the saints, Vol. 12 page 558. John Hodges, London, 1877.

8. Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1986). Handbook of British Chronology (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 367.

9. T. M. Charles-Edwards, ‘Dallán Forgaill (fl. 597) Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.

10. Book of Ballymote, p. 308, 26

11. Anc. laws Ire., iii, 88 (preface to Bretha Étgid); E. Mac Neill, ‘A pioneer of nations’, Studies, xi (1923), 13–28, 435–46; P. Mac Cana, ‘The three languages and the three laws’, Studia Celt., v (1970), 62–72; CIH, 250.1–337. 36 (Bretha Étgid); K. McCone, Pagan past and Christian present in early Irish literature (1991), 23–4; Ó Cróinín, Early med. Ire., 194–5

12. A.L. and G.E.Hutchinson, ‘Distribution of Sheela-na-gigs in Great Britain’, contained in The“Idol” or Sheela-na-gig at Binstead’, Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. & Arch. Soc., 1(4) (1969),240–9.

13. Carney, M. 1943. Agreement between Ó Domhnaill and Tadhg Ó Conchobhair concerning Sligo Castle (23 June 1539). Irish Historical Studies, 3(11), 282–296. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30006026.

14. Williams, N. J. A.: The poems of Giolla Brighde Mac Con Midhe (Irish Texts Society 51, 1980), poem 18.15. Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. 1982. An File. Baile Átha Cliath: Foilseacháin Rialtais. Pg. 21.